Tips from the Sunnah to Communicate Effectively with Others. Photo Credit Flazingo Photos flickrdotcomphotos1. N0. 71. 39. 03. 38. We communicate with people on a daily basis, and whats better than learning some important types of etiquette that could improve our daily interactions I personally worked as an elementary school teacher in Sharjah for a period of time. After Allah blessed me with my third child, I couldnt get back to work and I didnt miss the work environment much except for a few wonderful things that used to happen. I reminisced all those small, lovely things and especially remembered the peace greetings. The school where I used to work, being an Islamic one, had the full Islamic greeting instilled in its students from an early age, so whenever I used to enter any classroom and utter the greetings of peace, the entire class would reply, waalaykum as salaam warahmatul laahi wa barakaatuh and may the peace and blessings of Allah be upon you in unison. It was so beautiful, so pleasing to the ears and I had taken it for granted Though I knew I could not have that many duas showered over me now that I was at home, I made a mental note to use every talkingmeeting opportunity provided the kids werent crying or in tantrum mode to say the full greeting to everybody with the hope of receiving the same beautiful greeting a small decision with much to yield, In sha Allah. We meet our brothers and sisters day in and day out. The sunnah of the Prophet has taught us everything including manners and etiquettes of communicating with people in meetings, gatherings and elsewhere. If we were to follow the sunnah when communicating with people, we would be earning ourselves a great deal of reward, In sha Allah. Define fall verb and get synonyms. What is fall verb fall verb meaning, pronunciation and more by Macmillan Dictionary. So, lets recall some fantastic communication tips from the sunnah. But before proceeding, remember that our intentions must be pure and sincere, and unnecessary communication with non mahrams of the opposite sex should be avoided as much as possible 1. Smile The Prophet said Your smiling in the face of your brother is charity. Jami at TirmidhiBefore you start talking, smileThis is an instant ingredient to start any conversation positively and to remove any past ill feelings that could be present. Smiling brings joy to the giver and the receiver imagine being both. Pay attention to the tone and volume Beware of your tone and the volume of your voice. Your tone determines whether you will make your relationship or break it. Any undesirable loudness in your voice could put people off and make any further attempts to communicate futile. And be moderate in your pace and lower your voice indeed, the most disagreeable of sounds is the voice of donkeys. Quran Chapter 3. Verse 1. 93. Start with the Islamic greeting of peace Whether you know this Muslim or not, the greeting of peace or saying Assalaamu alaykum peace be upon you is recommended. It will repel hatred and create love between you. A man came to the Prophet and said Peace be upon youCheck Out This Genius Top African traditional herbalist healer leader of international traditional spiritual healers association.
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PDVSA Wikipedia. This article needs to be updated.Please update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information.February 2. Petrleos de Venezuela, S.A. PDVSA, Spanish pronunciation peeesa Petroleum of Venezuela is the Venezuelanstate ownedoil and natural gas company.It has activities in exploration, production, refining and exporting oil, as well as exploration and production of natural gas.Since its founding on 1 January 1.Venezuelan oil industry, PDVSA has dominated the oil industry of Venezuela, the worlds fifth largest oil exporter.Oil reserves in Venezuela are the largest in the world, and the state owned PDVSA provides the government of Venezuela with substantial funding resources.Between 2. 00. 4 and 2.PDVSA contributed 6.Around half of this went directly to various Bolivarian Missions, with the remainder distributed via the National Development Fund.Incompetence has led to serious inefficiencies and accidents.Reserves and capacityeditVenezuela has 7.PDVSA figures, the largest in the Western Hemisphere and making up approximately half the total.Petroleum Refinery Engineering Nelson Pdf Download' title='Petroleum Refinery Engineering Nelson Pdf Download' />This puts Venezuela as fifth in the world in proven reserves of conventional oil.By also including an estimated 2.Orinoco Belt region, Venezuela claims to hold the largest hydrocarbon reserves in the world.Venezuela also has 1.PDVSA has a production capacity, including the strategic associations and operating agreements, of 4 million barrels 6.Officials say production is around 3.OPEC and the EIA put Venezuelas output at least 5.PoliticizationeditIn 2.Rafael Ramrez, the energy minister, gave PDVSA workers a choice Support President Hugo Chvez, or lose their jobs.The minister also said PDVSA is red the color identified with Chvezs political party, red from top to bottom.Chvez defended Ramrez, saying that public workers should back the revolution.He added that PDVSAs workers are with this revolution, and those who arent should go somewhere else.Go to Miami. 6PDVSA continues to hire only supporters of the president, and PDVSA revenue is used to fund political projects.Historyedit1. This section needs expansion.You can help by adding to it.October 2. PDVSA purchased 5.Petroleum Refinery Engineering Nelson Pdf Download' title='Petroleum Refinery Engineering Nelson Pdf Download' />United Statesgasoline brand Citgo from Southland Corporation in 1.Filling station in Venezuela of PDV a subsidiary of PDVSAIn December 2.Venezuelan general strike of 2.PDVSAs managers and employees including the CTV trade union federation lock out workers to pressure Venezuelan president Hugo Chvez to call early elections, and virtually stop oil production for 2 months.Abstract To assess quantitatively the association between benzene exposure and leukemia, we examined the mortality rate of a cohort with occupational exposure to benzene.BP is one of the worlds leading integrated oil and gas companies.We provide customers with fuel for transportation, energy for heat and light, lubricants to keep.Refinery complexity quantifies the sophistication and capital intensity of a refinery and has found widespread application in facility classification, cost estimation.Petrleos de Venezuela, S.A. PDVSA, Spanish pronunciation peeesa Petroleum of Venezuela is the Venezuelan stateowned oil and natural gas company.The International Labour Organization ILO called on the Venezuelan government to launch an independent investigation into allegations of detention and torture, surrounding this strike.The strike caused substantial macroeconomic damage, pushing unemployment up by 5 to a peak of over 2.March 2. 00. 3. 3 The company has since formed its own militia, which all employees join on a voluntary basis, to ward off a potential coup by the government.It considers itself virtually indistinguishable from the state, its social programs more or less running the countrys socialist revolution.In 2. PDVSA opened its first office in China, and announced plans to nearly triple its fleet of oil tankers, to 5.In April and May 2.PDVSA, per an agreement signed between the governments of Venezuela and Argentina, sent 5.In November 2. 00.PDVSA and its subsidiary in the US, Citgo, announced an agreement with Massachusetts to provide heating oil to low income families in Boston at a discount of 4.Petroleum Refinery Engineering Nelson Pdf Download' title='Petroleum Refinery Engineering Nelson Pdf Download' />Similar agreements were later set up with other states and cities in the US Northeast including New Yorks Bronx, Maine, Rhode Island, Pennsylvania, Vermont and Delaware.Under the program, Citgo offered a total of around 5.US gallons 1. 90,0.In February 2. 00.PDVSA completed ISO 9.On 2. 8 July 2. 00.Moodys Investor Service said it was removing its standalone ratings on PDVSA because the oil company does not provide adequate operational and financial information.PDVSA has still not filed its 2.US Securities and Exchange Commission that were due in June 2.In 2. 00. 7, PDVSA bought 8.Electricidad de Caracas company from AES Corporation as part of a renationalization program.Subsequently, the ownership share rose to 9.December 2. 00. 8.PDVSA has made contributions to the protection of the environment through showcase projects in shanty towns and waste removal.PDVSA is Latin Americas third largest company, according to a ranking of the regions top 5.Latin Business Chronicle.In 2. 01. 0, PDVSA loaned the government of Antigua 6.West Indies Oil Company WIOC from Bruce Rappaports National Petroleum Ltd.In 2. 01. 2, PDVSA announced that it would enter into a joint venture agreement with Eni Sp.A and Repsol in order to initiate a gas production project at the Cardon VI gas block in Venezuela.Production from this joint venture is estimated to reach between 8.In February 2. 01.PDVSA and the Anglo French oil firm Perenco entered into talks for a 6.Petrowarao joint venture.In October 2. 01.Venezuela imported its first ever ship of oil from Algeria so that they could dilute their oil.Following the death of Chvez in 2.Bolivarian Venezuela, with the nations economy deteriorating greatly.By 2. 01. 7, PDVSA could not even afford to export oil through international water, which requires safety inspections and cleaning under maritime law, with a fleet of tankers stranded in the Caribbean Sea due to the issue.In May 2. 01. 7, Goldman Sachs purchased 2.Pd. VSA 2. 02. 2 bonds from the Central Bank of Venezuela.NationalizationeditVenezuela officially nationalized its oil industry on 1 January 1.PDVSA. See History of the Venezuelan oil industryNationalization.Assets of Exxon. Mobil and Conoco. Windows 7 Ultimate Sp1 X32 Lite Ie9 Install . Phillips were expropriated in 2.Venezuela to give PDVSA majority control, Total.Chevron, Statoil and BP agreed and retain minority interests in their Venezuelan projects.Arriving at a settlement with Exxon.Mobil has proven difficult with Venezuela offering book value for Exxon.Mobils assets and Exxon.Mobil asking for as much as 1.This and a number of other matters including the claims of Conoco.Phillips remain before the World Banks International Centre for Settlement of Investment Disputes.PDVSA has paid compensation for assets it has nationalized including 2.Exxon. Mobil on February 1.Exxon. Mobils Venezuelan assets in 2.U. S. firms Williams Cos Inc.Exterran Holdings, Inc.There have been worsening safety problems since 2.Paraguan Refinery Complex in August 2.Another major fire broke out at the El Palito refinery in September 2.Nelson Martnez August 2.Present BS in Chemistry, MS in Physical Chemistry University of Poitiers, France.Ph. D in Chemistry University of Reading, UK.Eulogio Del Pino September 2.August 2. 01. 7 Exploration geophysics, Universidad Central de Venezuela.Rafael Ramrez November 2.September 2. 01. 4 Minister of Energy and Oil 2.M. Sc. Energy policy UCV, B.Sc. Mechanical Engineering ULA.Al Rodrguez Araque April 2.October 2. 00. 4 Minister of Energy 1.Secretary General OPEC 2.Lic. Economics UCV.Gastn Parra Luzardo February 2.April 2. 00. 2 Academic Vice Rector LUZ 1.Dean of the School of Social Sciences LUZ 1.Lic. Economics LUZ.Guaicaipuro Lameda Montero October 2.February 2. 00. 2 Brigadier General of the Venezuelan Army and Electrical Engineering, University of the Pacific, M.Sc. economic planning.Hctor Ciavaldini August 1.October 2. 00. 02.Roberto Mandini February 1.August 1. 99. 9. Luis Giusti March 1.February 1. 99. 9 M.Sc. Petroleum Engineering TU, B.Sc Petroleum Engineering LUZGustavo Roosen March 1.March 1. 99. 4 Minister of Education 1.M. A. Comparative Law New York University NYU, B.A. Law UCAB. Andres Sosa Pietri March 1.March 1. 99. 2. Juan Chacn Guzmn October 1.March 1. 99. 0. Brigido R.Natera February 1.October 1. 98. 6 B.S. Geology, Universidad Central de Venezuela, 1.M. B. A. Stanford University, 1.Humberto Caldern Berti March 1.February 1. 98. 4 Minister of Energy 1.Rafael Alfonzo Ravard January 1.March 1. 98. 3. General of the Venezuelan Army and, Civil Engineering Massachusetts Institute of TechnologyOverseas assetsedit.The Citgo sign, as seen from Lansdowne St., Boston.Citgo Petroleum Corporation, USA Citgo is 1.PDVSA. Nyns Petroleum, Sweden PDVSA owns a 5. Murder Inna Dancehall Songs Lyrics.Batty Boy 2. 00. Sayrus.Album Silver Riddim March 2.VM Pod. Single Batty Boy 2.NcF0dNo1ebk/default.jpg' alt='Busy Signal Nuh Bwoy Download Free' title='Busy Signal Nuh Bwoy Download Free' />Silver.Lyrics Not found.Batty Bwoy Termination 2.Vybz Kartel, Mavado, Bounty Killer, Kiprich, Wayne Marshall, Twins Of Twins aka Batty Bwoy Mus Die.Album. Single Batty Bwoy Termination remix March 2.Stalag label Music World Entertainment.Lyrics Not found.Note The song Batty Boy Termination was never issued on an album.The B side of the single is I want To Fuck You remix by Akon Idonia.If Batty Boy Termination is a remix, it is possible that the original song was issued under a different title.WzGebA70I_o/hqdefault.jpg' alt='Busy Signal Nuh Bwoy Download Free' title='Busy Signal Nuh Bwoy Download Free' />Hier knnt ihr nachschauen, welche Songs bei Selektor gespielt wurden.Collin Demar Edwards born 1982, better known by his stage name Demarco, is a Jamaican dancehall and reggae recording artist.Download the hottest Jamaica music and Jamaica songs High definition MP3 files up to 320kb bitrate.Updated DAILY with the latest Jamaica music.Download the hottest top 20 Dancehall songs and Dancehall albums.Updated daily with high definition Dancehall MP3 files up to 320kb bitrate.I search the Internet and I couldnt find another song that has the same lineup.My conclusion is that Batty Boy Termination might be a combination of homophobic songs previously issued on the Stalag riddim.Batty Boy Dead 2.Admiral T Lovy Jam aka Makoum, Bril Yo, Batty Boy Dead Now.Album Killa Session artist Typical Fefe June 2.Lyrics Found. NOTE The song is titled different, depending on the single or the album it is included on.The word MAKOUM is a pejorative term similar to Fagg and Batty Man used in Goudeloupe.Sometimes spelled MAKOM.The title BRILE YO, means burn them in the french patoi used in Gouadeloupe.Batty Boy Fi Dead 2.Chicken. Album. Single.Lyrics Not found.Note Chicken and Mr.Chicken seems to be the same artist.The song might be from 2.It was featured on radio in July 2.Batty Boy Fi Die 1.Red Dragon. Album Year Of The Gun 2.Deadly Dragon Sound System unofficial DJ compilation.Album Inna The Early.Timeless Classics From The 1.Impression Sound unofficial DJ compilation.Single. Lyrics Not found.Battyman 2. 00. 8 Mavado aka Battyman Vybz Kartel Diss.Album. Single I dont think a single has been released time of research mid November 2.Lyrics Not found.NOTE look under the song DEM A FAG for details about that song.Batty Man Dem Flex Like A Sissy 2.Assassin feat. Elephant Man and Bounty Killer.Album Dancehall Dangerous 1.March 2. 00. 9 probably only released on DJ compilations. Torrent Bit Download Windows 7 . Album Ragga Cream October 2.DJ compilations. Single.Lyrics Not found.Note This seems to be a combination ofthree homophobic songs put together by a Dee.Jay. The song by Assassin is named DEM A SISSY 2.Move Like Sissy, see lower on this list for more info.I dont know the name of the song by Elephan Man and Bounty Killer.The original Assassin song is from 2.You. Tube in April 2.DJ compilation released in March 2.Battyman Fi Get Boom 2.Capleton. Album. Single.Lyrics Not found.Note An unofficial remix of the song was made by DJ Kass probably in 2.The remix features Miss Elliot, Capleton, Baby Cham and MOP Squad.The remix also features the Jamaican version of Oochie Wally that is called Want Punanny.Big Long Gun 2. 00.Sizzla. See Run Out Pon Dem.Blood Stain 1. 99.Ward 2. 1. Album Bellyas Various Artists February 2.Greensleeves Records.Album Mentally Disturbed November 6, 2.Greensleeves Records.Single Blood Stain 1.Mentally Disturbed riddim Bellyass.Lyrics Found. Bomb And Dynamite 1.Beenie Man. Album Defend It March 4, 1.VP Records. Single.Lyrics Not found.Note Cecil Gutzmore description of the song Like the work of Radikal Prodigal, it contains direct condemnation of designated homosexualbehaviour as wrong in the sight of di Almighty, repeatedly referring to Sodom and Gomorrah, to bombing sodomy generated social confusionand also to AIDS as somehow divine punishment fully deserved as a result of this sin.Text taken from the essay Casting The Fist Stone Policing of HomoSexuality in Jamaican Popular Culture, April 2.Bounty 2. 00. 2 Bounty Killer.Album. Single Bounty 2.Rattler riddim trafalgar.Lyrics Not found.Bow City 2. 00. 0 Elephant Man.Album Comin 4 YouOctober 1.Greensleeve Records.Album Adonai The Sound Of The Future Various Artists November 2.VP Records. Single Bow City 2.Studio 2. 00. 0 riddim Bad Weather.Lyrics Found. NOTE Brokeback Rodeo 2.Lovindeer. Album The Sound Of Jamaica December 1.TSOJ. Lyrics Not found.Note In the review of the album The Sound Of Jamaica, Reggae Vibes.Lovindeer delivers one of the friendliest anti battyboy statements in Jamaican music with Brokeback Rodeo.Buggering 1. 99. Capleton.Album Strictly The Best 1.VP Records November 3.Album Good So VP Records May 1.Single Buggering 1.African Star riddim none.Lyrics Found. Note This song was named on an Internet forum discussion, when dancehall fans were enumerating their favorite batty boy songs.Buggerism 2. 00. Mega Banton.Album Sound Boy Killing Various Artists February 2.T. P. Records. Single.Lyrics Not found.Note It is possible that this song was recorded before 2.Sound Boy Killing featured on this CD is from 1.Bumbo Red 1. 99. Capleton.Album Gold The Very Best Of Capleton Jet Star January 1, 2.Album Gold The Very Best Of Capleton RE ISSUE in the Killer Price collection Jet Star June 1, 2.Album Finest Platinum Reggae The Very Best Of Capleton Penitentiary Records digital, 2.Single Bumbo Red 7 inch single Jamaica 1.Exterminator riddim unknown.Single Bumbo Red 1.US 1. 99. 0 label Exterminator riddim unknown.Lyrics partially found see lower.Note In September 2.NYC mayor candidate was caught on tape dancing on the song Bumbo Red.He obviously didnt knew what the song was saying.Verse of the song Lick a shot inna a battyman headLick a shot inna a lesbian head All sodomite dem fi deadAll lesbian dem fi dead.Bun Bad Mind 2. Beenie Man.Album Ride Da Riddims Vol.March 4, 2. 00. 4 Universal Records.Album Summer Riddims 2.October 1. 2, 2. 00.WEA International Records.Single Bun Bad Mind label Big Leaugue riddim Spanish Fly.Lyrics Not found.Bun Friend 1. 99.Capleton. Album Reggae Hits Vol.July 1. 9, 2. 00.Jet. Star Records.Single Bun Friend label Stone Love riddim Typhoid.Lyrics Not found.Bun Dem 2. 00. 1 Junior Demus.Album Mud Up Greensleeves Rhythm Album No.Greensleeves Records April 1.Single Bun Dem label In The Streetz riddim Mud Up.Lyrics Not found.Note This song was named on an Internet forum discussion, when dancehall fans were enumerating their favorite batty boy songs.Bun Dem 2. 00. 4 Daddy Mory aka Bone Dem.Album Hot Night from DJ Willy 2.Calbass Production.Single none riddim Military.Lyrics Not found but the song can be heard by clicking here.Note The compilation Hot Night, on which the song is features seems to be an Internet for download compilation only.A compilation which features Jamaican tracks recorded with the Military riddim was issued on December 3.November 2. 00. 4.Therefore I am wondering if the year 2.Hot Night, probably an error.Another song titled HYPOCRITES was recorded on the same riddim by the Daddy Mory.Bun Out Gay Guy 2.Elephant Man aka We Bun Out Gay Guy.Album none. Single 1.INCH Bun Out Gay Guy Arab Mix Clean, Bun Out Gay Guy Arab Mix Dirty, Bun Out Gay Guy acapella label DJ Khaled riddim Arab Attack.Lyrics Not found.Note Only available on unofficial DJ compilations and the DJ 1.Discogs write The musical background track on both tracks featured on the A Side of the 1.Ms. Jackson by Out.Kast. Bullet Proof Skin 2.Bounty Killer aka Bulletproof Skin.Album The Biggest Ragga Dancehall Anthems 2.November 6, 2. 00.Greensleeves Records.Single Bulletproof Skin 2.TJ riddim Show Off.Lyrics Found. Note The website where I found the lyrics classified this song as a Beenie Man dis song.In other word, this song could be directed towards Beenie Man.Burn Down Soddom 2.I Wayne. Album Life Teachings VP Records October 1.Single Burn Down Soddom by I Wayne So High by Wayne Rebelution December 2.VP Records. Lyrics Found.Note The whole songs talks about gays and lesbians.There could be the whole debate about Burning being a religious cleansing imagery and wether or not he is allowed to use such imagery in a fredom of speech debate but the line Burn dem filthy web and dutty net down too, fire, tyre, kerosene oil or gas oil is an incitment to violence. Mazdas Holy Grail Of Gasoline Engines Is Completely Fascinating.Mazdas hotly anticipated SKYACTIV X Spark Controlled Compression Ignition engine has been described as the Holy Grail of gasoline motorssomething with diesel like fuel economy, but far better efficiency.TLyOxvw44.jpg' alt='How To Install Cold Air Intake On Mazda 3' title='How To Install Cold Air Intake On Mazda 3' />Cold Air Intake vs Short Ram Intake Whats the difference We get this question a lot.People ask us the pros and cons and which is better daily.ETS is proud to release our 20152018 WRX Intake System.Our intake system utilizes a stock size MAF housing that doesnt require any retuning.I went to Germany to talk to Mazdas extremely nerdy engineers, and before I actually drove the thing, heres what I learned.Full Disclosure Mazda wanted me to drive their SKYACTIV X prototype, so the company flew me to Frankfurt, Germany, put a nice roof over my head, and fed me delicious foods whose names had more umlauts and Scharfes Ss than I could count.Mazda brought executive officers, VPs and managers from its powertrain, vehicle development, and research and development teams to explain to journalists how the SKYACTIV X Spark Controlled Compression Ignition engine works, and why it matters.In addition, Mazda discussed its all new platform, which is where well start before jumping into the exciting SPCCI engine goodness.The New Platform.Despite having driven some prototype next generation Mazda.Frankfurt, I cant really say much about its improvement over the outgoing bones.But the main points executive manager of vehicle development Hiroyuki Matsumoto stressed when talking about the new structure dealt with refinement.Matsumoto said that, in its effort to improve a driving feeling they call Jinba Ittai Connection between horse and rider, the company studied the human gait to establish a platform that optimizes human ability to balance.Part of that involved designing the seat supports to maintain natural S curve of the spinal column by the erection of the drivers pelvis you can see that below.Mazda also designed a new seat structure thats apparently able to quickly and smoothly transmit the energy input from vehicle body to the drivers pelvis.On top of that, Matsumoto told journalists that the body has been stiffened to reduce the transient response time between the input load on one damper, and the response load at the damper in the opposite corner.Mazda does this by using what it calls ring structures shown in the dotted green circles below The engineer also mentioned suspension and tire changes aimed at smoothly controlling energy transfer from the wheel to the body, as well as NVH changes like the 1.Ultimately, Mazdas main points when discussing the new platform seemed to revolve around driver comfort, with emphasis on ride quality, noise, and the way the car communicates inputs to the drivers ass. C Wpf Window Fade In Fade . Mazdas hotly anticipated SKYACTIVX Spark Controlled Compression Ignition engine has been described as the Holy Grail of gasoline motorssomething with.Test 2 CorkSport Cold Air Intake System.On the intake side, a CorkSport Cold Air Intake System would breathe life into the SKYACTIVG engine.NonMazda owners may.EZUFwgN4Fkg/0.jpg' alt='How To Install Cold Air Intake On Mazda 3' title='How To Install Cold Air Intake On Mazda 3' />Unfortunately, I didnt spend enough time in the prototype to really assess how much better this platform is than the last.Well have to wait for a long term test for that.The Benefits Of Compression Ignition.To understand the whole point behind Mazdas new gasoline compression engine tech, lets look at the seven factors the company works on to increase internal combustion engine efficiency shown on the left of the graphic below.They are compression ratio, specific heat ratio, combustion period, combustion timing, heat transfer to the wall, differential pressure between intake and exhaust, and mechanical friction.Improving these attributes theoretically leads towards the ideal internal combustion engine, and SKYACTIV X takes a number of steps in the right direction.Higher Compression Ratio And Specific Heat Ratio.Mazda mentions in its presentation that combustion engine efficiency is related to compression ratio and the intake charges specific heat ratio via the equation above.In other words, cranking up compression ratio and specific heat ratios yields better efficiency.SKYACTIV G, Mazdas current generation of gasoline engine technology, used a clever exhaust system, a piston cavity, and a high pressure fuel system with multi hole injectors to prevent knocking and to allow for a ridiculously high 1.SKYACTIV X, a compression ignition engine, cranks that figure up to between 1.As for bumping up that specific heat ratio k value, Mazda says running the engine lean and decreasing its combustion temperature takes care of that.We know that k for air is about 1.That means the more air you can put into that air fuel charge, the higher that overall k value, and thus the greater the efficiency.Decreased combustion temperatures are a result of lean burn and indeed, why NOx emissions are so low for this type of engine.The benefit, Mazda shows in the plot above, is that the lower combustion temperatures mean less energy is lost to molecular vibrations and decomposition.Thus, a lower combustion temperature yields a higher k, whichagainmeans better efficiency.Combustion Period And Timing.Aside from the higher compression ratio and specific heat ratio it allows, compression ignition engines tend to burn their lean mixtures thoroughly and rapidly.This means energy from combustion can be more efficiently translated into work done on the piston, whereas spark ignition engines tend to involve a significant time delay associated with flame propagation.Pumping Losses And Heat Loss Through Cylinders.The other two areas where a lean compression engine can yield significant efficiency benefits is in cooling losses and throttling losses.The first is fairly straightforward, as lower combustion temperatures mean less heat transferred to the cylinder walls.The second has to do with the fact that a leaner airfuel mixture means theres more air required for a given torque level.Thisalong with strategic use of EGR, variable valve timing and a supercharger to control airflow into the cylinder means the throttle plate can be held fully open more often than on a standard gasoline engine.So instead of trying to suck air through a restrictive throttle plate, air can flow easily into the cylinders.Mazda says this also has the added benefit of improved throttle response, since theres no longer a delay in trying to fill the intake plenum.Emissions. Mazdas new technology also promises reduced emissions, which is a big deal, since Dieselgate is putting a huge damper on compression engines.With internal combustion engines, oxides of nitrogen tend to rise with a higher air fuel ratio up to a point.Above that point, NOx output drops as you can see from this plot.Since Mazdas new engine usually runs at a lambda fuel air ratio relative to stoichiometric of at least 1.NOx output is rather low, and can therefore forgo expensive emissions equipment.Carbon emissions, too, are reduced with SPCCI due to its higher fuel efficiency.How Mazdas SPCCI System Works, Exactly.A gasoline compression ignition engine isnt exactly a new concept.In fact, if you go back an entire decade, youll see that General Motors even had prototype Homogeneous Charge Compression Ignition engines with spark assist ready for journalists to drive around the test track.Why, then, is everyone getting excited about Mazdas gasoline compression engine when weve been hearing about similar technologies for years The answer comes down to how Mazdas controlling combustion.The two main issues that Mazda says have impeded the proliferation of gasoline compression engines are 1.The limited zone in which compression ignition is possible and 2.The rough transition between compression and spark ignition.What Mazda has done to solve these problems is devise a system called Spark Controlled Compression Ignition, SPCCI, a strategy in which a spark plug creates a fire ball, which acts to compress the homogeneous mixture of airinert EGR gases and fuel to incite compression ignition.Heres another look from the top of the cylinder look The spark plug itself isnt able to create this fireball with a lean mixture.So what Mazda has done is positioned a fuel injector close to the plug.That high pressure injector initially shoots small amounts of fuel into the cylinder during the intake stroke.That fuel mixes with a cyclone of air from the intake which is fed from a supercharger and cooled EGRboth of which can be precisely controlled to create a homogeneous lean mixture around the periphery. RIP, Microsoft Paint. MS Paint, the first app you used for editing images, will probably be killed off in future updates of Windows 1. |
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